India gained independence from British colonial rule, which lasted 200 years. This led to the largest, most abrupt, and bloodiest partition known in mankind's history. The legacy of the partition continues to cast a long shadow over India-Pakistan relations, influencing political hostility, territorial disputes, and societal mistrust to this day.

This article will explore the historical context, explaining how the violent separation and displacement of millions created emotional and political scars that have shaped the rivalry between the two nations. Transitioning to the present, the article will address how these historical wounds still shape modern-day tensions, such as the Kashmir issue, wars fought between India and Pakistan, and the recent Pahalgam terror attack.

Historical Background: The 1947 Partition

First, let's review what happened when India was still under colonial rule. India was called British India or the British Raj then. British India was divided into provinces and princely states.

The provinces were directly under the control of the British government, and the princely states were ruled by princes who enjoyed some form of control over their internal affairs as long as they accepted British supremacy. This was known as the paramountcy or suzerainty of the British crown.

Image Credits: National Geographic from Wikimedia Commons

Even then, India was diverse; it was populated by Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, and more. The British soon began to categorise Indians by their religious communities, Hindus being the majority and the rest being the minority, with Muslims being the largest minority.

India was earlier a united country, but with the British colonial rule, they categorised these exaggerated differences, causing imbalance amongst the Indians who had coexisted before. After all the freedom movements, the British caved in and decided on an independent India free from colonial rule. But with independence came not one but two nations.

The Two-Nation Theory

This theory was proposed by the leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who stated that there were immense political differences between the Congress and the Muslim League, with the Congress favouring the Hindu population the most, which created fear among the Muslims about what would happen to them after independence.

Image Credits: No 9 Army Film & Photographic Unit from Wikimedia Commons

He demanded a nation named Pakistan, which would be home to the Muslim majority. Pakistan was divided into East Pakistan and West Pakistan. This division took place according to the principle of religious majority, where the areas in India that were heavily populated with Muslims would make up the territory of Pakistan. The areas were Punjab and Bengal.

Congress had opposed this theory and the demand for Pakistan, but then went with it due to the aggravating communal tensions, leading to the Mountbatten Plan of 1947, also known as the 3 June Plan, which was the final blueprint for India’s independence. It proposed partitioning the country into two dominions—India and Pakistan. This was a very unplanned and tragic transfer of population due to inaccurate census numbers and outdated maps, leading to killings and atrocities on both sides of the border.

Trauma of Partition

The Partition of British India in 1947 was one of the largest and most violent displacements of people in modern history. As colonial rule ended and two nations—India and Pakistan—emerged, the subcontinent was plunged into chaos. An estimated 10 to 15 million people were forced to migrate across hastily drawn borders, seeking refuge based on religious identity.

Muslims moved towards Pakistan, while Hindus and Sikhs fled to India. Entire trains carrying refugees were attacked, their passengers slaughtered.

Image Credits: Technark-1 from Wikimedia Commons

Communal riots erupted in cities like Lahore, Amritsar, and Kolkata. Homes were looted and torched, women were abducted, sexually assaulted, and forced to change their religion to that of their kidnapper, and children were killed in the name of revenge.

The death toll from the Partition violence is estimated at between 200,000 and 2 million.

Many writers, filmmakers, and songwriters expressed their grief through poems, films, music, and art. Survivors of the partition described the partition as the division of hearts. This etched a permanent scar on the psyche of the subcontinent.

Survivors carried with them stories of horror, betrayal, and loss—memories that passed down through generations. This collective trauma shaped identities and hardened national narratives on both sides. India and Pakistan were not merely divided by borders but by experiences of suffering and betrayal that would fester into political enmity.

Aftermath of the Bloody Partition

Freedom came with a price, which was partition, and the aftermath was not a period of healing; instead, rising tensions took place that laid the groundwork for decades of hostility between India and Pakistan.

One of the most visible and immediate consequences of the Partition was the massive refugee crisis. Over 10 million people scrambled to cross newly drawn borders in a climate of panic and fear. Makeshift camps sprang up in cities like Delhi, Lahore, Amritsar, and Karachi, often lacking basic sanitation, medical care, or food.

Image Credits: Published by the 'The Sphere' periodical from Wikimedia Commons

Refugees arrived with little more than what they could carry, their homes and lands left behind, often seized, destroyed, or repurposed. Cities like Delhi saw their demographic compositions transformed almost overnight, as thousands of Hindu and Sikh families from Pakistan poured in, while Muslim residents fled in the opposite direction.

Many communities that had lived side-by-side for centuries were permanently divided, never to be reunited. The resentments and injustices felt by refugee populations became politically weaponised in both India and Pakistan, feeding into nationalist narratives and shaping public opinion for generations.

Source- Horrors of Partition of India: 1947 India-Pakistan Partition stories of violence and pain | India News, Partition of India 1947, Causes, Effects and History, Partition of India | Summary, Cause, Effects, & Significance | Britannica

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Wars and Ceasefires

First War Over Kashmir (1947–1948)

The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. In October 1947, tribal militias from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province, allegedly backed by the Pakistani military, invaded Kashmir. But why did this happen?

Image Credits: Georges Devred from Wikimedia Commons

Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, who was a Hindu but ruled over a state with a Muslim majority. The princely states during the partition were given the freedom to join Pakistan or India, or be an independent state. Maharaja Hari Singh wanted the state to be independent, but as Pakistan deployed their military and invaded Kashmir, the ruler of the state sought military help from India and agreed to sign the Instrument of Accession, formally joining Kashmir to India.

In response, India sent its troops to defend the region, leading to full-scale conflict between the two nations. The conflict continued until January 1949, when a UN-mediated ceasefire was implemented, resulting in the division of Kashmir between India and Pakistan along the Line of Control. The outcome was that the territory was effectively divided between India and Pakistan, with India retaining control of the Kashmir Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh, while Pakistan held Gilgit-Baltistan and what it termed Azad Kashmir.

Second India-Pakistan War (1965)—Operation Gibraltar

Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar to stir a rebellion in Kashmir by sending disguised soldiers across the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir. The job of this insurgency was to make the region as unstable as possible and to spark new unrest. India's response to the situation was not limited to the political ambitions of Pakistan, and thus, it implemented a military offensive and currently a full-scale war along the international boundary.

The war went on until, eventually, a ceasefire was achieved thanks to the intervention of the USA and the Soviet Union. The Tashkent Agreement was signed in 1966. There were no major changes in territorial possessions, but India still seemed to have an advantage.

This was supposed to be one of the biggest tank fights since WWII.

Third India-Pakistan War (1971)—Bangladesh Liberation War

The war was precipitated by the political turmoil in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and Pakistan's military crackdown on East Pakistan and India launched the war to support the Bangladeshi independence cause, and after a fierce battle on both the eastern and western fronts, Pakistan's army surrendered on December 16, 1971. The liberation war in question led directly to the formation of Bangladesh as a sovereign state.

Kargil War (1999)—Operation Vijay

Fought from May to July, when terrorists and the Pakistani military took control of the Kargil region in Jammu and Kashmir. The Kargil War was a high-altitude conflict between India and Pakistan. India launched 'Operation Vijay' to recapture the land, with help from the Air Force's 'Operation Safed Sagar'. The battle concluded on July 26 when India regained control, a day now known as 'Kargil Vijay Diwas.'

Uri Attack (2016)

In the aftermath of the terrorist assault on an Indian Army installation in Uri, Jammu and Kashmir, on September 18, 2016, resulting in the tragic loss of 19 soldiers, India executed a surgical strike across the Line of Control on September 28 and 29.

Image Credits: Ministry of Home Affairs from Wikimedia Commons

The Indian Army targeted multiple terrorist launchpads in PoK (Pakistan Occupied Kashmir), claiming significant casualties among terrorists preparing to infiltrate.

Pulwama Attack and Balakot Airstrike (2019)

Following the Pulwama terror attack, which killed 40 CRPF (Central Reserve Police Force) members. India replied by sending its Air Force to strike terror camps in Balakot, deep within Pakistani territory.

Operation Sindoor (2025)

Operation Sindoor was a precise, coordinated military strike launched by India on May 7, 2025, against nine terrorist bases and infrastructure in Pakistan and Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. Targets belonged to Lashkar-e-Taiba (responsible for the 26/11 attacks in Mumbai), Jaish-e-Mohammed, and Hizbul Mujahideen. This action was initiated in response to the horrific terrorist attack in Pahalgam on April 22, 2025, which killed 26 civilians, predominantly Hindu tourists. Source- Operation Sindoor: Know what India has achieved

Image Credits: Government of India from Wikimedia Commons

The name "Operation Sindoor" has profound cultural and symbolic significance. Sindoor is a traditional red powder used by married Hindu women in the parting of their hair to represent marriage, love, fertility, and husband protection. The operation was named after the widows left behind by the Pahalgam incident, emphasising the sorrow of women who lost their spouses and India's determination to seek justice on their behalf.

Source- India Pakistan War List 1947 to 2025

Attempts at Conciliation

Firstly, what does ceasefire mean? It can be defined as a 'suspension of acts of violence by military and paramilitary forces, usually resulting from the intervention of a third party.' A ceasefire signals an attempt to reach a more comprehensive and permanent settlement of an armed conflict.

The ceasefire agreements over the past years between India and Pakistan are-

Tashkent Agreement (1966)—Brokered by the Soviet Union after the 1965 war. Though it restored the territorial status, it failed to address Kashmir substantively.

Simla Agreement (1972)—Signed after the 1971 war, this agreement aimed to resolve all issues bilaterally and established the Line of Control in Kashmir.

Lahore Declaration (1999)—A rare moment of optimism where both sides pledged to improve relations, just months before the Kargil War disrupted progress.

Agra Summit (2001) and Composite Dialogue Process—A series of diplomatic engagements addressing a range of bilateral issues, including terrorism, trade, and Kashmir.

Ceasefire Agreement (2003)—India and Pakistan agreed to a ceasefire along the Line of Control, which held for several years before violations increased.

Ceasefire Understanding (2021)—Both countries reaffirmed their commitment to the 2003 ceasefire agreement, reducing border tensions.

Recent Ceasefire Agreement (2025)—India and Pakistan agreed to an immediate ceasefire brokered by the United States, effective from 10 May 2025, after four days of intense cross-border strikes.

Just a few hours after the ceasefire agreement between these two countries, brokered by the US, Pakistan launched a series of drone attacks. After that, India's air defence system combated those threats. Following that, more attacks and retaliations were made by both countries. Sources- Pakistan violates ceasefire hours after agreeing to it. What's happening, and where? – Firstpost, How does a ceasefire work? 5 ceasefires between India and Pakistan

Conclusion

The memory of 1947 is critical to understanding the ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan. From unsolved territorial issues to psychological wounds passed down through generations, the Partition's agony continues to shape the region's geopolitical climate. While both countries have modernised and improved in many ways, their relationship remains defined by mistrust, nationalism, and sometimes violence.

However, history also provides a cautionary tale. Every battle between India and Pakistan has had a deadly cost, not to political leaders or military elites, but to ordinary civilians caught in the middle. Displaced families, lost lives, ruined livelihoods, and communities living in perpetual terror are the genuine costs of this competition.

Peace does not imply ignoring the past, but rather confronting it honestly and learning from it. For the sake of future generations, both nations must invest in dialogue, empathy, and long-term stability.